Titled vs. Entitled

“Titled” means that something has received a title, as in The movie was titled, Grammar Gurus Gone Wild.

“Entitled” means that someone has rights to something, as in She felt entitled to special treatment ever since she won an Oscar for Grammar Gurus Gone Wild.

What Are We Supposed to Do?

Don’t use “suppose to” or “use to” when you mean “supposed to” or “used to.”

I Wonder How to Punctuate That

Incorrect: I wondered how he knew that?
Correct: I wondered how he knew that.

Incorrect: I asked her if she knew that?
Correct: I asked her if she knew that.
 
Don’t Use Quotes Indiscriminately

We’ve all seen signs like these:

Today only, “free” samples!
See these “classic” cars!
Employees must “wash their hands” before exiting the restroom.

Or phrases…
It’s not really my “cup of tea.”
If you’re not careful, you could end up with the “swine flu.”

The moral of this story: Don’t use quotation marks unnecessarily or for special emphasis.

And Finally…What Is an Aphorism?

An aphorism is a short, to-the-point sentence that sums up a clever observation or general truth:

The trouble with bucket seats is that not everyone has the same size bucket.

Writers are great. They taste like chicken.

With great power comes great responsibility. With mediocre power comes a 1964 Datsun pickup truck and a power suit from Sears.

When life gives you lemons, try making a lemon chiffon cake with extra lemon.

And finally, from Mark Twain:

Suppose you were an idiot. And suppose you were a member of Congress. But I repeat myself.

If you’ve ever been called uptight over grammar, this is the article for you. A Baltimore Sun writer answers the question “Why do commas matter?” Read more at:  http://weblogs.baltimoresun.com/news/mcintyre/blog/2009/02/why_commas_matter.html.

Or—for some interesting technology news—check out this cool article about the future of how we’ll use computers. Say good-bye to your mouse! Visit this link to read more: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/scienceandtechnology/technology/3544963/Will-touch-screen-technology-kill-the-mouse.html

Dialogue can be tricky to write and, sometimes, tricky to punctuate. A few pointers:

I. It is standard form to give each speaker his or her own line of dialogue.

     "Brad, I’d like you to meet my sister, Joanne,” Jill said as they walked into the room. 
     “It’s nice to meet you, Joanne. Or may I call you Jo?” Brad said.
     “I go by Joanne, but you can call me anything you want,” Joanne answered with an impish grin.

Sometimes this rule can be broken.

     “Quick, grab the rope,” he yelled, but when he turned around, his partner quietly said, “It’s too late.”

II. Other times, a character’s dialogue continues for more than one paragraph. In this case, use an initial quotation mark for each paragraph, and insert a closing mark at the end of the final paragraph.

     Doug said, “Dialogue paragraph one.
     “Dialogue paragraph two.
     “Dialogue paragraph three.”

Now the reader knows that Doug is finished speaking, even though he’s rambled on for three paragraphs…

III. Never use quotation marks in a screenplay, where every line is dialogue.

IV. And, finally, do not use laughed, smiled, or grinned as speech tags. These should be used as separate sentences, as it is impossible to grin or laugh a sentence.

     “Oh, you think you’re so funny.” She grinned. “But you have mustard on your face.”

REMEMBER TO CHECK OUT OUR LIST OF WRITING CONTESTS and ANTHOLOGIES! You won’t find a better list anywhere (AND IT’S FREE!) of upcoming anthologies, special-themed journals, and contests. Find it by visiting:
http://www.writersreliefblog.com/post/Anthologies-Contests.aspx

When the protagonist of your story pauses to think something, you need to set it apart somehow from the regular text and dialogue. There are a few different ways of setting characters' thoughts.

The most straightforward way to do this is to paraphrase the characters' thoughts into the narrative. For example:

When the brothers climbed up the riverbank, their school clothes coated with mud and filth, it occurred to them for the first time that their mom would be furious. Why hadn't they gone home first to change into play clothes? Oh well, they were already in trouble for being late for dinner, and they might as well get it over with. The trio trudged home reluctantly.

Another useful technique is to use italics, which is an effective tool when both thoughts and spoken dialogue are interspersed. This technique is becoming standard practice among publishers—and for good reason. The different type style makes it quite clear when a person is thinking versus speaking aloud:                                   

When the brothers climbed up the riverbank, their school clothes coated with mud and filth, it occurred to them for the first time that their mom would be furious. Why didn't we go home first to change into play clothes? Roger thought. "We're already in trouble for being late for dinner, so we might as well get it over with," he told his brothers, and the trio trudged home reluctantly.

This style is also popular with science fiction and horror writers, who use italics to show telepathic communication between characters. Some writers use quotation marks to set off thoughts, but this can get complicated, especially when thoughts and spoken dialogue are mixed. 

When the brothers climbed up the riverbank, their school clothes coated with mud and filth, it occurred to them for the first time that their mom would be furious. "Why didn't we go home first to change into play clothes?" Roger thought. "We're already in trouble for being late for dinner, so we might as well get it over with," he told his brothers, and the trio trudged home reluctantly.

There is nothing to differentiate between the spoken sentence and the thought. This can be avoided by using single quotation marks around the thought, but this is an awkward fix, and we don't recommend it.

When the brothers climbed up the riverbank, their school clothes coated with mud and filth, it occurred to them for the first time that their mom would be furious. 'Why didn't we go home first to change into play clothes?' Roger thought. "We're already in trouble for being late for dinner, so we might as well get it over with," he told his brothers, and the trio trudged home reluctantly.

If your character is thinking something to himself, it is redundant to say so.
 
Wow, that sure is a small car, the large man thought to himself.

But if he is thinking out loud, tell this to your reader. 

"Wow, that sure is a small car," the large man thought aloud. 

Finally, whichever style you choose to follow, make sure it stays consistent throughout your work, and make it easy for your reader to follow what your characters are thinking, as well as saying.

Americans have embraced many fads and phases over the years, and some have been fairly forgettable (pet rocks excluded, of course). These trends eventually fade into the woodwork until very few people actually remember them at all. Unfortunately, this is the case for the poor old interrobang.

What?!?! You've never heard of the interrobang?!?!

If we were to use this sad, maligned creature right now, it would merge the exclamation points and question marks of the previous sentences into one new, glorious punctuation mark and save us all some grief. Who needs to see such a confusing conglomeration of marks anyway?

Martin Speckter came up with this concept in the 1960s, when he headed up an advertising agency. He believed that a single mark would look better than a combination question mark/exclamation point in his copy, and, indeed, the interrobang, as he named it, became popular for most of that decade. It appeared in some dictionaries and in magazines and newspapers across the country. Some typewriters even featured an interrobang key, but, much like the typewriter itself would fare, its use ended in the early seventies.

It's possible that the interrobang died a natural death because of its irritation factor. It is irritating to read a sentence that contains more than one exclamation point or question mark; it is irritating when the sentence combines question marks and exclamation points; therefore, it must have been quite irritating to see this freakish combination mark in print. Could it be that the I-Bang never really had a chance?

Don't fret too much, though. You can still find this nearly extinct creature in Microsoft's Wingdings, as well as a few other fonts. But remember: just because you can still find platform shoes with goldfish swimming in the soles doesn't mean you should buy them. And you definitely shouldn't wear them out in public!

In this article we'll focus on the use of commas after introductory words or phrases. There are a few rules, mostly to indicate a natural pause in the sentence and to avoid sentence confusion. In many cases it is the writer's choice. Here are a few guidelines to follow.

DO use a comma:

--After introductory exclamatories and after expressions of affirmation or negation.

Well, it's about time. Oh, you shouldn't have! Yes, I'd love to.

--After an introductory clause.

As I told you, the principal won't be back until Monday.

--After an introductory prepositional phrase of more than four words.

After driving for more than eight fun-filled hours, we finally arrived at the motel.

--After an introductory verbal phrase, appositive phrase, or absolute phrase.

Having formed an instant bond, the boy and the puppy quickly became inseparable.

In order to give a good estimate, the plumber spent over an hour investigating the leaky pipes.

A lawyer from Texas, John Stetson is an expert in copyright law.

--After introductory transitional words.

However, I never said I would actually attend the party.

Of course, I wasn't actually invited...

Do not use a comma when a gerund or an infinitive is used as a subject.

Watering the lawn is a good way to attract birds.

To tackle the subject without any research would be foolish.

NOTE: As with many elements of creative writing, comma usage generates much debate. Many experts recommend separating all introductory elements with a comma. It makes for a natural break or pause, and it contributes to better comprehension. Others argue that if the sentence is clear without the comma, and the introductory element is short, the comma is unnecessary; ultimately, it comes down to personal preference and what works best for the reader.

Stymied by pesky punctuation marks and their position in quoted speech or phrases? The rules differ depending on what part of the world you hail from, but if you're writing for an American audience, here's the skinny.

Commas and periods go inside quotation marks:

She said, "Put the groceries over there."

It's no wonder that we still rely on romantic "instinct."

Except when a parenthetical reference follows the quotation:

Fritzheimer refers to this option as "a quick fix with little regard for the individual's needs" (321).

Colons and semicolons go outside quotation marks:

The first group's questionnaires came back with a majority of "not sure" or "not at this time"; however, the second group responded more in the affirmative.

Be sure to pack enough road trip "survival gear": magazines, munchies, and gum.

Question marks and exclamation points go outside the quotation if they apply to the whole sentence, inside if they apply to the quotation itself:

George asked, "Why is he yelling at the coach?"

Why do they insist on saying, "All's well that ends well"?

Susan yelled, "She's driving on the wrong side of the road!"

I cannot believe she is singing "The Star-Spangled Banner"!

A comma is not needed if the quoted material flows smoothly within the sentence, without break or pause:

The phrase "live and let live" always comes to mind when the neighbors pay a visit.

British Versus American Style

In the UK and British-influenced countries, commas and periods are placed either inside or outside the closing quotation marks based on whether or not they belong to the quoted material (much the same way as American placement of question marks and exclamation points is determined). So why did we change styles in the United States? Surprisingly, it was more a matter of typography than grammar or style. According to alt.english.usage, back in the 1700s American printers, when setting type by hand, found that periods or commas outside of quotation marks were prone to get knocked out of position or were damaged because they were smaller and more delicate. If they were inside the quotation mark, they were better protected, and thus we began to move away from British convention.

Some American language experts are outspoken advocates of returning to the British style, citing the confusion that can result from our system. But The Chicago Manual of Style says, "In defense of nearly a century and a half of the American style, it may be said that it seems to have been working fairly well and has not resulted in serious miscommunication."

Read this article by Sam Roberts.

Semicolon sightings in the city are unusual, but Neil Neches, a writer in the transit agency's marketing and service information department, inserted one on a placard anyway.

This article articulates the wonder in seeing a semicolon in such an odd place, but other grammarians, professors, and teachers are delighted to see it used properly.

The reason the semicolon is so rarely seen and used is simply because not many know how to use it properly. In the wave of technology and IM/text speak, a semicolon is used to wink at someone.

Check out the article for more information. ;)

http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/18/nyregion/18semicolon.html?ex=1361163600&en=1f4b96ff6a13e0b6&ei=5124&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink

As with so many aspects of the writing world, formatting issues are a gray area, and writers struggle with the burning question: One space or two after closing punctuation?

When in doubt, creative writers often turn to the Chicago Manual of Style, whose official view is that there is no good reason to use two spaces after a period for work that is to be published. (Obviously, this rule does not apply to personal correspondence, notes, etc.)

In the days of typewriters, extra space was necessary to create a more defined space between sentences for the reader's eye. Typewriter fonts are monospaced, which means that all the letters take up the same amount of space, and most of us were taught in typing class to add that extra keystroke at the end of a sentence. But computerized fonts are proportionally spaced, and a single space is sufficient to provide a visible break. The exceptions are the fonts Courier and Monaco, which are monospaced, but it's probably best to switch to a font such as Times New Roman or Arial rather than using the double space.

So save yourself a keystroke; there's something to be said for efficiency.

The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, a compact, two-volume version of the 20-volume set, was recently released, and it has caused a small stir among those who care about such things: the SOED editors have done away with the hyphen in approximately 16,000 words, throwing a wrench into the works of hyphen-addicted old-schoolers. Shortly afterward, The New York Times printed an article about it, along with a graphic of a gravestone inscribed with: Here Lies The Nearly-Departed, Seldom-Understood, Soon-To-Be-Forgotten Hyphen. It was a fitting epitaph. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/07/weekinreview/07mcgrath.html?_r=1&oref=slogin

The hyphen has long been a misunderstood creature, and there are no hard and fast rules about its usage. In general, it is used to provide breaks in lines, and in the spelling of certain words, such as father-in-law or anti-American. Hyphens are also used as "suspension hyphens" to indicate a stand-in word (four-, five-, and six-gallon containers) and to link compound adjectives that precede a noun (We gave the six-foot man a wide berth). Hyphens can also be used to avoid confusion as in 30-odd people. Without the hyphen, we might be looking at 30 strange people wandering around rather than approximately 30 folks. We have also traditionally used hyphens to set off prefixes such as "self" and "ex," and when two vowels need separation as in "pre-eminent," although, today you'll find "preeminent" in most standard dictionaries.

If you're a little uncertain about the use of hyphens, don't despair—you're not alone. The English language is terribly unregulated, and your hyphen decisions should be based on common sense and consistency. If in doubt, look it up. At Writer's Relief we use Merriam-Webster's dictionary as the final authority, and the no-hyphen trend has been spotted there as well.

The SOED has provided us with thousands of newly de-hyphenated words that, according to editor Angus Stevenson, are "only reflecting widespread everyday use." So, now we have bumblebee, airstream, leapfrog, and ice cream (instead of ice-cream). The editors at SOED have been tracking trends for many years and report that the hyphen seems to be falling by the wayside. It is not, however, in any danger of disappearing for good. Otherwise we may get confused and go searching for a good looking date—you know, a date who is good at looking—or a fine tooth comb with which to comb our teeth.

Some writers find that the trickiest sentences to punctuate are those that include clauses beginning with words such as who, that, and which. Clauses of this type are called relative clauses, and the key to correct punctuation is to understand whether the clause in question is restrictive or nonrestrictive. Following are some guidelines to help.

First, remember that a clause is simply a group of words that contains at least one subject and at least one verb. There are two main types of clauses:

Independent Clause: Also called a sentence, this clause expresses a complete thought.

Example 1: The boy had been missing for three days.

Subordinate Clause: Like all clauses, this clause contains at least one subject and at least one verb; however, subordinate clauses do not express a complete thought. Instead, they are dependent upon the rest of the sentence for their meaning.

Example 2: The boy who had been missing for three days was found at his friend's house in Texas.

In this sentence, the subordinate clause who had been missing for three days is dependent upon the independent clause (The boy was found at his friend's house in Texas.) In other words, the subordinate clause could not stand on its own as a complete sentence.

Relative clauses are a type of subordinate clause. They often begin with a relative pronoun such as who, that, or which, and they answer the following questions: Which one? What kind? How many?

In example two, because the subordinate clause begins with who, we can also call it a relative clause. It tells us which boy was found at his friend's house in Texas.

There are two types of relative clauses: restrictive (also called essential) and nonrestrictive (also called nonessential).

A restrictive clause is a clause that is essential to the meaning of the sentence. In other words, if you removed the restrictive clause, the sentence's meaning would not be the same.

A nonrestrictive clause is a clause that is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. If you removed the nonrestrictive clause, the meaning of the sentence would stay the same. Nonrestrictive clauses simply impart extra information that is not necessary to the main idea of the sentence.

There are two important points to remember about restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses:

1. Restrictive clauses are not set off by commas. Nonrestrictive clauses are set off by commas.

2. Generally, the pronoun that should be used with restrictive clauses and which should be used with nonrestrictive clauses. The pronoun who can be used with both restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses.

Let's look at some examples:

Example 3: The book that is lying on the coffee table belongs to Cherie.

Example 4: The book, which is lying on the coffee table, belongs to Cherie.

At first glance, these sentences may appear to be very similar. However, their meanings are very different. In example three, the relative clause that is lying on the coffee table is restrictive; it is essential to the meaning of the sentence. It tells us which book out of many belongs to Cherie. If we removed the clause from the sentence, the sentence's meaning would no longer be the same.

In example four, the writer has placed commas around the relative clause which is lying on the coffee table. This clause is nonrestrictive; it is nonessential to the meaning of the sentence. We can tell by the use of the nonrestrictive clause that there is only the one book in the room, and that book belongs to Cherie. In other words, if the nonrestrictive clause was removed from the sentence, the writer's original meaning would be preserved.

Example 5: Bob Jones, who is my next-door neighbor, won the election.

In example five, the relative clause is nonrestrictive. The fact that Bob Jones is the speaker's neighbor has nothing to do with the intent of the sentence, and this clause could easily be removed. The clause is nonessential.

Keeping these basic points in mind will make punctuating restrictive and nonrestrictive sentences much less tricky!

Many people consider semicolons to be the most confusing of the punctuation marks. These people generally fall into two camps: those who liberally pepper their page with semicolons, and those who never use them for fear of using them incorrectly. However, as with the other marks of punctuation, using semicolons is not difficult if you keep some basic rules in mind.

Rule 1: Use a semicolon between independent clauses that are closely related in theme.

Independent clause: a word group that contains at least one subject, at least one verb, and expresses a complete thought. An independent clause is also called a sentence.

The key words in this rule are closely related in theme. You should not place semicolons indiscriminately between independent clauses, as in the following example:

Example 1: Jane drove to Phoenix to visit her parents; her parents' dog had to go to the vet.

Clearly, these sentences have nothing to do with each other. The fact that Jane visited her parents in Phoenix is one thing, and the fact that her parents' dog had an appointment with the vet is quite another. A period should be used between unrelated sentences such as these. Semicolons should be placed only between sentences that are closely related in theme, as in the following example:

Example 2: Tom earned his bachelor's degree last summer; his sister earned hers in the fall.

These sentences are related thematically; both discuss academic degrees and when they were earned, so the semicolon is appropriate. Of course, a period would also be appropriate.

Rule 2: Use a semicolon before conjunctive adverbs and transitional phrases that join independent clauses.

Conjunctive adverb: adverb that acts as a transition between independent clauses by showing comparison, contrast, cause-effect, sequence, or other relationships.

Common conjunctive adverbs: also, consequently, conversely, finally, furthermore, hence, however, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, nonetheless, otherwise, similarly, subsequently, therefore, thus

Transitional phrase: a phrase that acts as a transition between independent clauses by showing comparison, contrast, cause-effect, sequence, or other relationships.

Common transitional phrases: after all, as a matter of fact, as a result, for example, in addition, in conclusion, in other words, on the contrary, on the other hand

Example 3: Philip is studying engineering; however, he is also interested in pursuing a degree in music education.

Example 4: Cindy has published several novels; in addition, she has published a volume of poetry.

In each of the previous two examples, you should note two things. First, the sentences joined by the semicolons are closely related in theme, which is the fundamental rule of semicolon placement. Second, note that the semicolon is placed before the conjunctive adverb or transitional phrase. This is because the adverb or phrase begins an independent clause. Compare the following examples:

Example 5: Angela fell and injured her leg last month; nevertheless, she was able to compete in the race today.

Example 6: Jim has always been an exceptionally hard worker; his coworkers, moreover, have nominated him for employee of the month seven times.

In Example 5, the semicolon is placed before the conjunctive adverb nevertheless since the adverb begins an independent clause. In Example 6, the semicolon is placed before his since his signals the beginning of the independent clause. The conjunctive adverb in this sentence (moreover) is simply serving as an interrupter.

Rule 3: To ensure clarity, use a semicolon between items that contain internal punctuation.

Compare the following examples:

Example 7: For her young son's birthday, Jenny purchased a chocolate cake with chocolate frosting, sprinkles, and candy topping, a pair of shoes with white stripes, laces, and light-up heels, and a new racetrack complete with cars, people figurines, and miniature buildings.

Example 8: For her young son's birthday, Jenny purchased a chocolate cake with chocolate frosting, sprinkles, and candy topping; a pair of shoes with white stripes, laces, and light-up heels; and a new racetrack complete with cars, people figurines, and miniature buildings.

Example 7 is difficult to read due to its excessive use of commas; because of the internal punctuation within each item in the list, the commas between those items serve only to muddle the writing and confuse the reader.

Example 8, which places semicolons between each item, is much clearer.

Semicolons are like spices; they shouldn't be overused. As spices complement the main ingredients in a dish, semicolons should complement your writing—not overpower it. When used correctly, semicolons can add variety and increased readability to your writing.

The comma "rule" that many of us learned—to place a comma anywhere we think a reader should pause—often results in muddled, nearly incoherent sentences like the following:

When Susan was a child, she wanted to be an astronaut, or a doctor, or a banker, but when she graduated from high school, she decided, that she would like to become an artist, and live in a big, exciting, fun city.

This "rule" is, of course, not a rule at all, and following it made the sentence above very difficult to read. Are all nine commas really necessary? Let's check the seven fundamental comma rules.

Comma Rule 1: Use a comma before coordinating conjunctions that join independent clauses.

Coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet

Independent clause: a word group that contains at least one subject, at least one verb, and expresses a complete thought; also called a sentence.

Example: Tom enjoys writing poetry, and he has submitted several poems to regional literary magazines.

Comma Rule 2: Use commas to separate items in a series.

Example: She bought bread, milk, cookies, and juice.

Example: Of the three children, Becky is the oldest, James is the youngest, and Jack is the middle child.

Comma Rule 3: Use a comma after introductory words, phrases, and clauses.

Example: Quietly, she tiptoed past the sleeping child. (introductory word)

Example: Running quickly, Marjorie arrived at the bus stop before the bus pulled away. (introductory phrase)

Example: After he finished his homework, Brian read The Great Gatsby. (introductory clause)

Comma Rule 4: Use commas to set off nonrestrictive phrases or clauses from the rest of the sentence.

Nonrestrictive phrase or clause: a phrase or clause that adds nonessential information to the sentence. In other words, if the phrase or clause was removed from the sentence, the sentence would still retain its original meaning.

Example: Several politicians, lawyers, and business leaders attended the conference, which began at 2 p.m. (nonrestrictive clause)

Comma Rule 5: Use a comma between adjectives that modify the same noun.

Hint: If you can put and or but between the adjectives, a comma will probably belong there.

Example: Edgar is a tall, distinguished businessman. (Since we could write tall and distinguished, the comma is necessary.)

Example: When I was in college, I lived in a small brown house next to a filling station. (Since we are not likely to say that we lived in a small and brown house, no comma is necessary between these adjectives.)

Comma Rule 6: Use a comma to separate a direct address from the rest of the sentence.

Example: Becky, please go to the store and buy some milk.

Example: If we don't go soon, Barney, it will be too late.

Comma Rule 7: In direct quotes, use a comma (or commas) to separate the speaker from the quote.

Example: The teacher said, "Please pass your essays to the front of the room."

Example: "I want to go to grandma's house," the child said.

Example: "Drive to the mall," Mother said, "and buy a new sleeping bag for your camping trip."

Comma placement is not difficult if we follow these basic rules. So let's take another look at the first example: How many of the nine commas are necessary? If you said five, you're correct. Here's the sentence as it should be punctuated:

When Susan was a child, she wanted to be an astronaut or a doctor or a banker, but when she graduated from high school, she decided that she would like to become an artist and live in a big, exciting, fun city.

The first comma in the sentence follows rule 3: Use a comma after introductory words, phrases, and clauses.

The second comma follows rule 1: Use a comma before coordinating conjunctions that join independent clauses.

The third comma follows rule 3: Use a comma after introductory words, phrases, and clauses.

The fourth and fifth commas follow rule 5: Use a comma between adjectives that modify the same noun.

Comma placement can be tricky, but if we follow the fundamental rules, it can—and will—become second nature.

Knowing how to recognize and spell compound words can sometimes be tricky. Here are some tips to help:

Definition: A compound word is formed when two or more words join to form a new word that has its own meaning. Although compound words are often written as single words (such as teapot), sometimes they are not. That’s why it is important to understand that there are three types of compound words: closed compounds, hyphenated compounds, and open compounds. Let’s take a look at each of them:

Closed Compounds: compounds written as single words (newspaper, goldfish, highway)

Hyphenated Compounds: compounds that are hyphenated (mother-in-law, second-rate, court-martial)

Open Compounds: compounds written as separate words (end zone, high school, health care)

Sometimes knowing when to write compounds as single words, hyphenated words, or separate words is difficult. That’s because some compound words change their type based on their function in a particular sentence.

For example, when used as a noun, backup is written as one word: The police officer called for backup. However, when the same compound word is used as a verb, it is written as two words (back up): Did you back up your computer files? When used as an adjective, backup is one word: What is your backup plan for tomorrow evening?

Thus, the first tip for understanding how to write a compound word is knowing the word’s function in the sentence. Let’s take a look at a few more examples of this:

1. handout: As Jill was walking down the street, a man gave her a handout advertising a free concert in the park. (Here, handout is a noun.)

2. hand out: John handed out the flyers. (Here, handed out is a verb.)

3. upside down: The cake landed upside down. (Here, upside down is an adverb telling how the cake landed.)

4. upside-down: The upside-down poster announced a free concert in the park. (Here, upside-down is an adjective describing poster.)

When in doubt about the spelling of a compound word, you should first consult a dictionary, such as Merriam-Webster, which will list the appropriate spellings based on the word’s function in the sentence. You will find, too, that many words are always spelled one way, regardless of their function. For example, according to Merriam-Webster, high school is written as two words regardless of whether it is used as a noun—Peggy has just started high school—or an adjective—Peggy is a high school student.

The confusion occurs when the compound word is not found in the dictionary. Then, writers need to rely on their judgment to ensure that their intended meaning is preserved. Here are some tips to help:

1. Hyphenate the compound word if its meaning will be ambiguous without the hyphen.

Example: Dr. Lawrence, a small-town practitioner, was the first official to arrive on the scene. (Here, the hyphen is necessary; without it, readers may think that the practitioner was a small man, rather than a practitioner who works in a small town.)

2. Never hyphenate compound words that are created with -ly adverbs.

Example: Tammy and Bob bought the recently renovated house on Main Street.

3. Hyphenate the elements of a compound adjective that occurs before a noun.

Example: They attended a black-tie affair.

Note: The following kinds of compound adjectives almost always need to be hyphenated:

Noun + adjective (tax-exempt), Noun + participle (government-owned), Adjective + participle (friendly-looking), Adjective + noun + ed (high-priced)

Remember these points when working with compound words, and you should have no trouble with their spelling:

1. There are three types of compound words: closed compounds, hyphenated compounds, and open compounds.

2. If you are in doubt about the spelling of a compound word, you should check a dictionary before you apply any other guidelines.

3. Hyphenate if ambiguity will result without the hyphen.

4. Never hyphenate -ly adverbs.

The apostrophe. It's a small punctuation mark, but its misuse can cause huge problems in your writing. Here are some rules to guide you as you tell 'em whose it is.

Rule 1: To form the possessive of a singular noun that does not end in s or an s sound, add an apostrophe plus s to the noun:

Examples: the doctor's orders, the writer's desk, Tammy's car, my sister's children, her father-in-law's house

Rule 2: To form the possessive of a singular noun that does end in s or an s sound, add an apostrophe plus s to the noun:

Examples: Jennifer Lopez's music, the witness's report, James's poetry

One exception to this rule is to add only an apostrophe when adding the apostrophe plus s makes the word difficult to pronounce:

Examples: Sophocles' plays, Mrs. Rogers' new car

Rule 3: To form the possessive of a plural noun that ends in s or es, add only an apostrophe to the noun:

Examples: the actors' roles, the writers' convention, their doctors' orders, the beaches' cleanliness

Rule 4: To form the possessive of a plural noun that does not end in s or es, add an apostrophe plus s to the noun:

Examples: her children's toys, the women's dressing room

Rule 5: To indicate separate possession, add whichever possessive sign is appropriate (an apostrophe plus s or an apostrophe alone) to the name of each person:

Examples: Bill's and Tom's cars (two separate cars: Bill's car and Tom's car), James's and Olivia's houses (two separate houses: James's house and Olivia's house)

Rule 6: To indicate joint possession, add the appropriate possessive sign (an apostrophe plus s or an apostrophe alone) to the final name:

Examples: Mary and John's house (the house belongs to both Mary and John), Edward and Madeleine's books (the books belong to both Edward and Madeleine)

One exception to this rule occurs if one of the owners is identified by a pronoun (my, his, her, our, their). In this case, make each name and pronoun possessive:

Example: Erica's and my project (not Erica and my project); Mark's and our dinner (not Mark and our dinner); John's, Edgar's, Lisa's, and my party (not John, Edgar, Lisa, and my party)

A note about the possessive pronouns: my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their, theirs, whose. These pronouns never require apostrophes.

Rule 7: To form the possessive of a singular abbreviation, add an apostrophe plus s.

Examples: the FAA's ruling, the MD's diagnosis, USA's stand

Rule 8: To form the possessive of a plural abbreviation, add an s'.

Examples: the PhDs' dissertations, the RNs' orders, the CPAs' convention

A note about apostrophes in contractions: Whenever a word or phrase is shortened by contraction, remember to place an apostrophe at the point where the letters are omitted.

Examples: don't (do not), can't (cannot), rock 'n' roll (rock and roll), ma'am (madam)

Apostrophe placement shouldn't give you any trouble if you just follow these simple rules. So when Maria parks her car in Tom and Jane's driveway, which is next to the Petersons' house and across the street from Edward's and Alfred's apartments, you'll have no trouble at all conveying that information to your reader!

The function of the hyphen is to clarify, but it sometimes does the opposite, particularly when it’s used with compound adjectives. Here are some basic hyphenation rules to help you decide when a hyphen is necessary and when its use will just muddle your writing—and confuse your reader.

Rule 1: When compound adjectives come before a noun, the adjectives should be hyphenated.

Compound Adjective: two or more adjectives that work together to describe the same noun

Example 1: On Monday, Mrs. Thomas taught problem-solving skills to her class.

The compound adjective problem-solving tells what kind of skills Mrs. Thomas taught. Since these adjectives come before the noun and work together to describe the noun, it’s necessary to place a hyphen between them.

To understand why the hyphen is needed, remove it, then check the sentence’s meaning—it will be very different:

Example 2: On Monday, Mrs. Thomas taught problem solving skills to her class.

With no hyphen between the two adjectives, the writer’s meaning is unclear. Did Mrs. Thomas teach solving skills that were a problem? Did she teach two types of skills to her class: problem skills and solving skills? Be sure that your punctuation reflects what you’re trying to say.

Also, watch for words that look like compound adjectives but are really separate, independent adjectives. Take a look at the following sentence:

Example 3: Stephen King is a successful, popular writer.

Here, successful and popular do not form a compound adjective; instead, they are two separate, independent adjectives describing writer, and a comma—rather than a hyphen—should be placed between them. Either word could be used by itself, and the sentence would make sense.

Rule 2: If the compound adjective comes after the noun it describes, no hyphen is needed.

Example 4: On Monday, Mrs. Thomas taught her class many skills, including problem solving.

Since problem solving follows the noun (skills), no hyphen is needed.

Sometimes writers may use what is called a suspending hyphen, a hyphen that is used when two or more adjectives have the same base element, and the base element is shown only with the last term. Consider the following examples:

Example 5: Although they couldn’t wait for their new furniture, Bill and Abby knew that there would be a three- to four-day delay in delivery.

Here, three and four share the base word day. The writer could have written three-day and four-day delay, but using the suspending hyphen creates writing that is more succinct and easier to read.

Example 6: Peter’s knowledge of the case was through second- and thirdhand information.

In this sentence, the hyphen after second tells the reader that second shares the same base element as thirdhand, which is, of course, hand. Again, using the suspending hyphen is more efficient than writing secondhand and thirdhand information.

So far, so good, right? Well, there is an exception to these basic hyphenation rules.

Rule 3: Do not hyphenate when the first of the two words ends in -ly.

Example 7: Maddie is an extremely overworked mother.

Extremely is an adverb. By definition, adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. In this sentence, extremely is not describing mother (which is a noun) but is telling how overworked Maddie is. Therefore, no hyphen is needed between extremely and overworked.

Rule 4: Watch for special hyphenated nouns.

Example 8: She was the runner-up in the beauty contest.

Other examples can include mother-in-law (and the other in-laws), best-seller, follow-up, etc. When in doubt about a hyphenated noun (as opposed to a compound word, such as letterhead or freeway), don't guess. It's always best to look it up in Merriam-Webster's Dictionary (our dictionary of choice).

Hyphens can be tricky, but if you proofread your work carefully and follow these basic rules, they won’t trip you up!

Almost nothing distracts your reader as much as grammatical errors, whether they be misplaced commas, dangling modifiers, or pronoun agreement problems. Perhaps the most distracting errors of all are sentence-structure errors—sentence fragments and run-on sentences. Here’s how to recognize these problems and learn to correct them so your readers can enjoy your story rather than notice only your grammar.

Sentence Fragments:

A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence. We know that a sentence must have at least one subject, at least one verb, and express a complete thought. Although a fragment is punctuated as a sentence, it is often missing a subject, a verb, or both. Another way of looking at it is that a fragment cannot "stand on its own" and make sense. Consider the following:

Example 1: Peter has always loved to write. He loves to travel too. Which is why he decided to become a travel writer.

Notice that the first two word groups are, in fact, sentences. Each contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. The third word group, however, is not a sentence. It cannot "stand on its own" and make sense; it is dependent upon the previous sentence for its meaning.

One surefire way to find fragments is to read your work from the last sentence to the first. Because fragments do not make sense out of context, they are easier to find if you read your work this way.

Correcting Fragments:

Fragments can be corrected in a couple of different ways:

1. Add the missing subject, verb, or subject and verb.

Example 2: Joe was late. Missed his plane. Here, the italicized word group is a fragment that is missing a subject. To correct it, add an appropriate subject: Joe was late. He missed his plane.

2. Join the fragment to either the previous or next sentence (whichever one makes the most sense), using the correct punctuation. This is the best way to correct Example 1: He loves to travel too, which is why he decided to become a travel writer.

Run-On Sentences:

There are two types of run-on sentences: comma splices and fused sentences.

A comma splice occurs when only a comma is placed between two sentences. Consider the following:

Example 3: Jane loves to cook, she also loves to go out to eat.

Here, two sentences (Jane loves to cook and She also loves to go out to eat) are joined by a comma. Remember that a comma alone can never come between two sentences.

Correcting Comma Splices:

1. Leave the comma where it is and place an appropriate coordinating conjunction after it (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet).

Example 4: Jane loves to cook, and she also loves to go out to eat.

2. Replace the comma with a period, semicolon, or other appropriate punctuation.

Example 5: Jane loves to cook. She also loves to go out to eat.

Example 6: Jane loves to cook; she also loves to go out to eat. (Semicolons should be placed between sentences that are related. Notice that the "s" in she is lowercase after the semicolon.)

3. Add a subordinating conjunction to one of the clauses. Some subordinating conjunctions are after, although, as, because, before, if, inasmuch, since, unless, until, when, whenever, whereas, and while. Example 7: Although Jane loves to cook, she also loves to go out to eat.

A fused sentence occurs when no punctuation at all is placed between two sentences. Consider the following example:

Example 8: Tom entered many writing contests he took first place in some of them.

It’s clear that this word group consists of two sentences "stuck" together without appropriate punctuation: Tom entered many writing contests, and He took first place in some of them.

Correcting Fused Sentences:

1. Add the appropriate punctuation and additional words, if necessary. (Note: Be careful with commas. If you add a comma alone, you will create a comma splice.)

Example 9: Tom entered many writing contests, and he took first place in some of them.

Example 10: Tom entered many writing contests; he took first place in some of them.

The best way to locate these sentence-structure errors in your work is to read your writing out loud, slowly and carefully. Check for each type of error separately, and look closely at each punctuation mark you use. Careful editing will not only result in sentences free of these grammatical spoilers, but it will also ensure that your reader keeps his or her focus where it belongs—on your story!

The art of writing is a creative process. When the ideas are flowing, the last thing you want to worry about is your placement of semicolons or the correct spelling of "jacaranda." But once your ideas are down on paper and you’re satisfied with the result, checking for grammar, punctuation, and spelling becomes a necessary evil. After all, no editor will be impressed with your dramatic story line or unique perspective if your work is peppered with misspellings and funky punctuation. Sometimes a love of the language isn’t enough—a good grasp of the mechanics of writing is required to let your words flow eloquently.

Your options are clear. Brush up on your mechanical skills, hire an editor, or have a trusted writer friend proof your work. At Writer’s Relief, we provide expert proofreading to catch errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling. But we can’t always be there to look over your shoulder and point out the run-on sentences in the essay section of a job application or a scathing letter to your senator. The following Web sites provide some fun (yes, even spelling tests can be fun!) and illuminating quizzes to help you identify your weakest areas. And you’ll be improving your craft one comma at a time.

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/

http://www.wadsworth.com/devenglish_d/special_features/grammarquizzes.html

http://www.copydesk.org/quizzes/quiz48.htm

http://www.dailygrammar.com/archive.shtml

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/quiz_list.htm