Exclamation points, plural compound words like “mothers-in-law,” and scare quotes are tricky for writers concerned with proper grammar, punctuation, and usage. Writers tend to use “almost” and “most of” with imprecision as well. Keep reading to learn the best way to use these words and punctuation marks.

How to Effectively Use Exclamation Points!

As with many things, overuse of a technique will diminish its power. So it is with the oft-overused exclamation point. This powerful little punctuation mark loses its punch if it appears too often or, worse, in multiples. Use the exclamation point for emphasis, humor, strong emotion—but use it sparingly to avoid sounding like a lovesick teenager.

The concert was great!!! Joel was totally awesome!!! I’m in love!!!

Another example of overusing the exclamation point:

The car took the turn too quickly! Martha shrieked in fear and stomped on invisible brakes, but it was too late! Her baby was in the backseat! Skidding, the SUV broke through the barricade and disappeared over the edge of the embankment!

Despite the tension of the entire paragraph, only one exclamation point is appropriate—Her baby was in the backseat!—and using more than one in a paragraph is almost always overkill. Not that the exclamation point doesn’t have its uses—if there’s no emphasis in a scene that screams for emphasis, the writing will come across as the equivalent of monotone.

What Are Scare Quotes?

Have you ever seen a sign like this at your local grocery store?

Today only! Buy one, get one “free”!

Is the second item free or not? The scare quote casts doubt on the word it encloses, even though the author’s intention was simply to make the word “free” stand out. Many writers make this mistake when trying to emphasize a particular word or phrase.

Cathy didn’t know why her friends were making her an “outcast.”

I felt “ripped off” by my agent.

Scare quotes should be used to express skepticism or derision about the enclosed word or phrase. They are especially useful when you’re aiming for irony or sarcasm:

The so-called “humane” society put over a hundred dogs to death this year.

It was hard to believe this noise was actually classified as “music.”

You may also use scare quotes to distance yourself from a word or phrase. For example, if you are writing a self-help book, you may surround “inner child” with quotes to show it’s not your own term, and that you may not even agree with the phrasing.

Be careful how you use these “scary” quotes or your reader may have trouble interpreting your meaning. If you offer a 19th-century saga of the “Western” frontier, your readers may assume they’re going to be tricked and denied any cowboys and Indians.

How to Make Compound Words Plural

Compound words are often hyphenated (brother-in-law). Since the first word in the compound (brother) is the most important, it is the part that is pluralized: brothers-in-law.

Other examples of compound words in plural form:

                        passerby                          passersby

                        matron of honor              matrons of honor

                        knight-errant                  knights-errant

Do not add an apostrophe “s” to the end to make it plural, unless it is possessive.

Correct:            My mother-in-law’s opinion matters to me. (Singular)

                        My mothers-in-law’s opinions matter to me. (Plural)

Almost (all of) vs Most (of)

These phrases can be pitfalls for writers, and their different nuances can change the meaning of your sentence. So can the placement.

1.  I almost failed all of my classes. (I nearly failed but ended up passing all of my classes.)

2.  I failed almost all of my classes. (I did fail most of my classes.)

3.  I failed most of my classes. (I failed more than half of my classes.)

Here’s how to remember where in a sentence to write “almost.”

“Almost” means “nearly.”

“Almost all” means close to all, but not quite all.

“Most of” implies more than half.

“Almost all” and “most of” are very similar and can be used in similar ways, although “almost all” is stronger than “most of.” (I like almost all of his movies implies that I’m a bigger fan than I like most of his movies.)

Here are a few more examples:

1. She almost planted all her roses. (She was interrupted before she could finish or start.)

2. She planted almost all her roses. (She was able to plant nearly all of her roses.)

3. She planted most of her roses. (She was able to plant at least half of them.)

Don’t be tripped up by confusing words and phrases. Sign up for our FREE newsletter for monthly articles on tricky grammar and troublesome punctuation problems, along with dozens of articles on the writing craft and the publishing industry. And if you’d like one of our expert proofreaders to make sure your writing is smooth and error-free, check out Writer’s Relief’s list of services, designed to help the creative writer send out their best work and get it published.

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Confused by Web wording: email or e-mail? Web site or website? Online or on-line? Web server or web server? Internet or internet? Rules about hyphens, spaces, capitalized letters, and spelling are giving writers everywhere headaches.

There’s no question that the Internet has had a profound impact on the English language, adding many, many words to our vocabulary in a short period of time. Difficulties arise because grammar pundits, who are rigorous about insisting that language rules be logical and consistent, seem to be at odds with the general public, which largely prefers ease of use.

While only a handful of grammarians are in charge of defining formal standards, the majority of the population disregards those standards when it comes to a number of Internet terms. It will be interesting to see who will win the battle: grammarians or the larger population (Note: Our money’s on Joe Sixpack).

In the meantime, here’s the new policy that we at Writer’s Relief have adopted (and you’re welcome to steal our strategy). Keep in mind that it’s likely that this policy will change as the gap between common usage and formal usage shrinks.

How to write “online” or “on-line”
We’re starting with this one because it’s the easiest. "Online” has been preferable to “on-line” for a while now, both formally and informally.

How to write “email” or “e-mail”
Should you use the word “email” with a hyphen or without? Informally, “email” with no hyphen is acceptable. “Email” is used much, much more often than “e-mail,” especially on the Internet.

However, if you’re submitting a short story or sending a formal letter, “e-mail” is still technically correct, so in formal creative writing, it may be a good idea to use the formal spelling. Only one thing’s really clear here: You don’t need to capitalize the “e” in “email.”

How to write “website” or “Web site”
The word “Web” comes from the phrase “World Wide Web.” Both “World Wide Web” and “Internet” are currently considered proper nouns and should be capitalized. So if you’re writing the phrase “Web server,” or if you’re saying, “Let’s surf the Web,” it’s better to capitalize “Web” the same way you would capitalize “Internet.”

Because “Web” and “Internet” are capitalized proper nouns, grammarians argue that “website” should be written as “Web site.” That said, very few people except grammarians are using the spelling “Web site.” It’s awkward (one part of the phrase is capitalized, and the other isn’t, which makes many people uncomfortable).

“Web site” has been informally changed by the general population to “website,” no caps, no space between. More people are typing “website” into search engines than “Web site.” “Website” seems to have moved beyond slang and become a common usage, though dictionaries have yet to verify the change.

(Note: It’s likely that in the future, “Internet” and “World Wide Web” will also lose their initial capital letters. But it’s too soon to tell for sure.)

Here’s what we recommend: In your submissions to literary agents and editors (or other formal writing), you may want to play by the rules, writing “Web browser” and “Web site.”

But in your informal writing, it probably won’t hurt anything to write “Web browser” and “website,” even though the logic feels slightly off (capping “Web” in one place but not another). Remember: “Web,” like “Internet,” is capped when it stands alone.

Again, we’re waiting for the formal rules about the phrases to catch up with the general population’s preference. There’s a chance it may never happen, but we’re optimistic that common ground will be reached.

Why have two sets of rules?
If you’re a writer and you want to present yourself as a person who is familiar with grammar rules in formal language, choosing the “rules” over the trends may be a good choice.

If you’re a writer and you want someone to be able to find your blog about antique cars, you have a choice. You can choose the phrase “antique cars Web site” or “antique cars website.”

Most of your potential audience will choose the latter when they are typing a query into a search engine. Therefore, by using the unofficial phrasing, it’s likely that you will be more in tune with your audience. You will also likely increase your Web visibility.

When in doubt...
If you’re not sure about which phrasing to use in a given situation, it may be best to simply go with the formal standards. We recommend Merriam-Webster’s website for reference. You can’t go wrong following the rules.

However, bear in mind that many grammar pundits believe there’s a good chance that the informal usages will ultimately take precedence over formal usages. The rules are very slowly catching up with the times. Stay plugged in to Writer’s Relief, and we’ll keep you updated on grammar and usage rules.

Question: In fiction, is it okay to begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction (and, but, yet)?

Answer: Not according to many high school English teachers and not according to Strunk and White (The Elements of Style). The long-enduring rule has been that using a coordinating conjunction to begin a sentence implies a preceding clause to which the sentence should be connected, leaving an incomplete sentence or fragment. However, the majority of modern fiction writers agree that using a conjunction to begin a sentence is an acceptable practice. In fact, creative writers have been doing it for centuries, happily ignoring this “rule” as well as other restrictions, like Thou Shalt Never Use Sentence Fragments or A Comma Must Separate Two Conjoined Sentences. In fiction, the lines between convention and creativity can be blurry. 

Coordinating conjunctions include the words: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. Beginning a sentence with one of these conjunctions can lend impact or emphasis to the sentence:

I’d really like to go to college. But who’s going to pay for it?

It was a frigid night, with the wind whipping off the lake. Yet she stripped down and dove in anyway.

It is unnecessary to use a comma after a coordinating conjunction. One exception is “so,” which is often used at the beginning of a sentence as a kind of summing-up device, and in this context, it is usually set off with a comma:

So, needless to say, we ended up moving across the country.

As a creative writer, if you begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction, fear not—no grammatical rules have been broken, although it’s best to use this technique sparingly for maximum effect. However, keep in mind that in formal communication, business correspondence, and academic writing, you’d be wise to follow the advice of Strunk and White and avoid starting sentences with conjunctions. And not use sentence fragments. (Kidding!)

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What is an appositive?

An appositive is a noun (or noun phrase) that provides information about another noun.

Appositive:

The man of the hour, Mr. Shoemaker, took his place at the podium.

At the end of the aisle I saw my mother, Ruth, coming toward me.

Appositive Phrases:

A big fan of country music, Sarah was excited to go to the Taylor Swift concert with her friends.

Martha, a gifted artist as well as a patron of the arts, pledged her support of the new gallery.

Her father’s underlying goal, to prevent his daughter’s marriage, was behind his decision to expose the family’s secret.

What is the proper way to punctuate appositives?

The general rule for punctuating appositives and appositive phrases is simple.

If the information is essential to the meaning of the sentence, do not use commas to set it apart:

            In my apartment complex, my neighbor Sam is the most quiet.

For this example, “Sam” is essential to the meaning of the sentence. There are presumably other neighbors, and only one of them is the most quiet.

If the appositive provides extra (nonessential) information, use commas to punctuate it:

In my apartment complex, the landlord, Robby, keeps things neat, tidy, and under control.

For this example, there is only one landlord, and his actual name is nonessential.

One more example of appositives and their proper punctuation:

Mark’s brother Kurt and his wife, Christine, were the only members of his family to show up at his graduation ceremony.

From this sentence we learn that Mark has more than one brother, making identifying the brother by name a necessity, and only one wife—we hope—whose name is nonessential and therefore set off by commas. (Don’t tell his wife.)

Too vs. To
Too is an adverb, with two different meanings:
• Excessive
Example: Don’t heap too much food on that paper plate.
• Also, in addition
Example: Your sister is coming too.
Example: Don’t forget to set her a place too.

To can be combined with a verb to create an infinitive (to + verb):
Example: I can’t wait to swim in the river.

To can also be a preposition.
Example: This road leads to my house.
Example: Don’t speak to your mother like that.

Each Other vs. One Another
Use each other when referring to two people. Use one another when referring to more than two people:
Example: The two friends embraced each other.
Example: The basketball team high-fived one another.

’Til vs. Till
Either of these substitutes for until is appropriate, as long as the punctuation is correct.
Example: I will wait till noon to call.
Example: I will wait ’til noon to call.

Et cetera
This is a Latin phrase meaning “and other things.”
When et cetera is abbreviated, it must be punctuated with a period at the end: etc. It’s used in informal or technical writing to suggest the logical continuation of a list of things.
Example: We’ll need to assemble nuts, bolts, tools, etc.

Do not use etc. after and or to refer to people. Do not use it as a synonym for e.g. or et al.; and do not use it to vaguely refer to “other things” that are not clear to the reader. In creative writing, avoid the use of etc. altogether. Specify all the items in the list or use “and so on.”

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Titled vs. Entitled

“Titled” means that something has received a title, as in The movie was titled, Grammar Gurus Gone Wild.

“Entitled” means that someone has rights to something, as in She felt entitled to special treatment ever since she won an Oscar for Grammar Gurus Gone Wild.

What Are We Supposed to Do?

Don’t use “suppose to” or “use to” when you mean “supposed to” or “used to.”

I Wonder How to Punctuate That

Incorrect: I wondered how he knew that?
Correct: I wondered how he knew that.

Incorrect: I asked her if she knew that?
Correct: I asked her if she knew that.
 
Don’t Use Quotes Indiscriminately

We’ve all seen signs like these:

Today only, “free” samples!
See these “classic” cars!
Employees must “wash their hands” before exiting the restroom.

Or phrases…
It’s not really my “cup of tea.”
If you’re not careful, you could end up with the “swine flu.”

The moral of this story: Don’t use quotation marks unnecessarily or for special emphasis.

And Finally…What Is an Aphorism?

An aphorism is a short, to-the-point sentence that sums up a clever observation or general truth:

The trouble with bucket seats is that not everyone has the same size bucket.

Writers are great. They taste like chicken.

With great power comes great responsibility. With mediocre power comes a 1964 Datsun pickup truck and a power suit from Sears.

When life gives you lemons, try making a lemon chiffon cake with extra lemon.

And finally, from Mark Twain:

Suppose you were an idiot. And suppose you were a member of Congress. But I repeat myself.

Here’s a hard-and-fast rule of writing—pronouns and their antecedents must agree in three ways: gender, number, and person. Failure to do so will result in teeth gnashing and hair pulling.

A pronoun (he, she, it) replaces a noun. An antecedent is the word (or words) to which the pronoun refers.

Frank walked through the gate, and he flashed his badge to the guard.

In this sentence he refers to Frank. Frank flashed his badge. The gender is correct (unless Frank is a woman) and the number is correct—Frank is one person and he refers to a singular noun.

If the pronoun and antecedent don’t agree in person, you will have an awkward (and incorrect) sentence:

You have to flash one’s badge to the guard to be admitted.

You and one do not agree.

What if the pronoun refers to more than one antecedent?

The little boy popped Freddy in the mouth, and he began to cry.

It is reasonable to assume that Freddy is crying since he has been popped in the mouth. The context of the sentence makes this pretty clear. But as there is an element of ambiguity here, it is possible that the little boy hit Freddy and then felt remorse and began to cry. The author of this sentence could easily get away with the original construction, but to make it crystal clear:

The little boy popped Freddy in the mouth, and Freddy began to cry.

Overkill? Possibly, but there’s no room for misinterpretation.

If the context doesn’t make the meaning of the sentence clear, it’s time to revise.

The lion crept closer to the gazelle, and, suddenly, it leaped into the air.

Since both lion and gazelle could be it, we don’t know which animal leaped through the air. This sentence should be rewritten for clarity.

In general, it comes down to common sense. Be sure the pronoun refers directly to the noun. If the pronoun can refer to more than one antecedent, it’s best to rewrite to make sure there’s no room for misinterpretation.

The English language has a nice, neat system of verb tenses to choose from:

Nearly every piece of fiction will require a variety of verb tenses to show the reader the sequence of events throughout the story. A letter to the editor will most likely be written in the present tense, and a nostalgic piece about your childhood will be primarily written in the past tense. We’ll give a quick overview of the proper usage of all the verb tenses, but first, here’s a question from one Newsflash reader:

"Is there a preferred tense choice for fiction writers, or does one’s choice of verb tense brand one as a “hack” or an amateur?"

Even though tenses fit neatly into a table, making the proper choices isn’t so cut-and-dried. There are various shades of difference between, say, the future and the future perfect, and authors must determine what accurately describes the sequence of events they are trying to convey. Verb tense puts the reader in the proper time frame, and messing around with it can be incredibly distracting, especially if you’re inconsistent. Is this happening now? Is this a flashback? Editors do not care what tenses are used as long as they are used correctly.

For instance, a big, red amateur flag pops up if verb tense is flat-out wrong.

I wanted to find an open drugstore, and I walk into the first one I see.

Obviously, there are two tenses (past and present) where there should be one, and this is jarring to the reader. Pick one tense and stick to it.

A second problem involves using the passive voice. Both of the following sentences are technically correct, but sentence #2 uses an active voice to drive the action…
 
The car was driven quickly down the street. (Who drove the car?) 

Melissa drove the car quickly down the street. (Ah, much better.)

Editors are turned off by the excessive use of the passive voice, and passive writing is often wordy—this can quickly brand you as an amateur. As far as proper usage of verb tenses in general, here’s a quick grammatical overview: Use the present for discussing general knowledge or truth, arguments or ideas, or works of literature.

Dogs prefer an owner with a calm, steady nature. 

Use the past for events that have already happened in the past and are now finished.

In 1966 her parents moved to the Northeast.

Use the present perfect for events that happened in the indefinite past. 

He has argued that carbohydrates are not the enemy they are portrayed to be.

Use the past perfect with the simple past to describe an event that happened before another event.

The storefront had already been destroyed when the police arrived.

Use the progressive form to emphasize action that is happening at that moment.

I am working as fast as I can.

Use the future perfect for actions that will be completed at some time in the future, with one event occurring before another.

When the bell rings I will have been writing for over half an hour.

As with so many aspects of writing, there is no rule that says if you want to get published, use this (fill in the blank) tense. Some writers are able to write fiction entirely in the present tense (something that requires a great deal of skill and practice), but there is nothing amateur about choosing to write in the past tense—the most common and widely accepted tense for fiction. Again, every piece of fiction is likely to contain multiple forms of verb tenses, and the trick is to use them properly and consistently.

Since and because. These are two little conjunctions that cause problems for some folks and represent yet another gray area in terms of accepted usage. Merriam-Webster lists because as a synonym for since and vice versa, but there are subtle differences.

Since is used in a temporal sense.

Since the weather changed, my allergies have improved. 

An easy way to test if since is appropriate is to substitute “from the time when.”

Since she was a toddler, music has been an important part of Cheryl’s life.

We have visited nearly every hobby shop in San Francisco since we moved to California.

When talking about cause and effect, use because. This leaves very little room for confusion, as the word itself spells out its purpose.               

Because of the new medication, my allergies have improved.

Also correct: Since I discovered this new medication, my allergies have improved.

Because we were missing so many ingredients, we had to find a new recipe.

Unfortunately, this does not clear things up completely.

According to more than one dictionary, since can also be used to mean because:

Since he emphasized how important it was, I ran right out and mailed it.

(I mailed something because it was important.)

Some folks insist that this is incorrect; and while it does lend itself to confusion (because would have made it more clear that this is a cause-and-effect situation), it is not necessarily incorrect. Some style guides insist on sticking to since for time-related usage, which helpfully removes any doubt. In most areas of creative writing, though, people have been happily using this construction for years and are unlikely to stop just because they’re told it’s wrong.

When a sentence contains repeated words, most spell-checking programs will highlight the extra word. It’s a fairly common form of typo. But there are also times when a sentence has been deliberately constructed with double words:

I assured them that that wouldn’t happen.

The spell-checker flags this as a mistake but is it incorrect?

Another example: They were instructed to give her her job back.

Both of our examples are grammatically correct, but some may find them a bit awkward. A simple rewrite can often eliminate the problem.

I assured them that it wouldn’t happen.
They were instructed to reinstate her job.

One other source of confusion is the construction of “had.”

They had had some trouble with their neighbors long before this lawsuit.
If I had had an extra pencil, I would have finished the exam in time.

These are examples of the correct usage of the past perfect form of “have” when it refers back to an earlier past time.

A more troublesome usage of double words involves “is,” as in, The trouble is is that you are from out of town. Or The fact is is that the weather won’t cooperate.

This is incorrect, as well as awkward, and should be rewritten. The trouble is that you are from out of town. The subjects of the sentences are “the trouble” and “the fact,” which require only one verb—“is.”

Sometimes writers try to fix the problem by adding a comma. The question is, is the man going to stick around? The general construction of these “the problem is, the question is” sentences is inherently ungainly and should probably be avoided.

So, do not be unnecessarily troubled by doubled words. If you are unhappy with them, reword your sentence.

As soon as I wrote it, it started to make sense.

Mantel or Mantle?

Use “mantel” when referring to the shelf above a fireplace. Use “mantle” to refer to a cloak or loose garment worn over other clothes. “Mantle” can also be used as a verb, as in to cover with (or as if with) a mantle.

Lose or Loose?

Use “lose” as a verb. You can lose a bet, lose the game, or lose your mind, but you can’t “loose” any of your faculties or possessions. “Loose” can be used as a verb too, as in “Use the hook to loosen the knot,” but, for the most part, use “loose” as an adjective. You can have a loose tooth, a loose screw, and loose change; you can have loose pants and loose morals, but don’t worry, it won’t make you a “looser.” 

For example…i.e. or e.g.?

The abbreviation e.g. stands for the Latin exempli gratia, which means “for example.” It must be followed by one or more examples. However, using e.g. does not mean that the list is a complete one.

We have several breeds of puppies available; e.g., Hounds, Labs, and Poodles, and there are several mixed breeds as well.

The abbreviation i.e. stands for the Latin id est, meaning “that is.” It should be followed by an explanation rather than a list of examples.

Don’t forget to attend the greatest match of all times. Come support the pride of Utah; i.e., the Howlin’ Huskies, on Saturday afternoon.

• Don’t forget to use a period after each letter; both are abbreviations.

• Use a comma after i.e. or e.g.

• You may use either abbreviation at the beginning of a sentence or in a parenthetical statement.

• If either abbreviation is used within the body of the sentence, use a semicolon before the expression and a comma afterward.

Hopefully (adverb)
 
 1) in a hopeful manner
 2) it is hoped; I hope; we hope
 
Hopefully, this drought will end soon.
 
According to Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary:
 
In the 1960s the second usage of hopefully underwent a surge in popularity and was then followed by a flood of criticism. But the word in question belongs to a class of adverbs called “disjuncts,” which serve as a means by which the author or speaker can comment directly to the reader—usually on the content of the sentence to which they are attached. Many other adverbs are used in a similar fashion, such as frankly, luckily, unfortunately, but “are so ordinary as to excite no comment or interest whatsoever.” The second usage of hopefully is considered to be standard.

The use of “only.”

Here is another bone of contention among writers. The correct placement of “only” in a sentence depends largely on what part of the sentence is to be stressed.

According to Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary:

“After 200 years of preachment the following observations may be made: the position of only in standard spoken English is not fixed, since ambiguity is avoided through sentence stress; in casual prose that keeps close to the rhythms of speech only is often placed where it would be in speech; and in edited and more formal prose, only tends to be placed immediately before the word or words it modifies.”

Examples:

Those kids respond to only one teacher; the rest seem to have little influence.
Only two kids responded to the invitation.

One Newsflash reader asked about a couple of other gray areas:

Is it bite-size or bite-sized? Farmer’s market, farmers market, or farmers’ market?

Again, according to Merriam-Webster, it is correct to use either “size.” The more common usage listed is “bite-size” or “king-size,” but under variant usage “bite-sized” and “king-sized” are listed.

The same goes for those farmers’/farmers/farmer’s markets. As our reader noted, “Sheesh! How many ways can you find this expressed on any given day?”

It would make more sense to use “farmers’ market,” as it indicates a market where there is usually more than one farmer selling their wares, but a Google search yields no consistent usage or hard-and-fast rule.

Oh, and one more thing:

Use “bated” breath, not “baited” breath. The word “bated” is the abbreviated form of “abated,” which means to subside or put an end to.

Previously, we wrote about the importance of using gender-free language in our writing—not only to avoid excluding groups of people, but also to let the reader concentrate on what we’re saying, not how we’re saying it. There are many ways to offend people—whether it’s women, people with health issues, or entire races—and it’s important to be aware of the language we use in our writing to avoid being insensitive.

Gender Bias and the Singular “They”

If you are talking about a population of people of both sexes, do not alienate one gender by using pronouns that are either male or female. When we know the gender of a group, it’s easy:

            The Girl Scouts convened at noon, and each girl had her speech ready.

But if the gender of the group isn’t quite so clear, things get a little tricky. Consider the following variations: 

1. When the volunteers showed up, each felt their heart sink at the terrible sight.
2. When the volunteers showed up, each felt his or her heart sink at the terrible sight.
3. When the volunteers showed up, they felt heartsick at the terrible sight.

Sentence #1 is technically incorrect, as “their” is plural yet refers to a singular indefinite pronoun (“each”). This is common in speech, but the written word comes under closer scrutiny, and many grammarians insist that this usage is not only incorrect, but unacceptable. Using the singular “they/their” has, however, become more commonplace in modern literature and is not unheard of in historical literature—and many predict that this practice will one day be considered correct and standard form.

Sentence #2 is correct, but, if overused, this technique becomes tiresome very quickly.

Sentence #3 is also correct and eliminates the gender issue altogether.

If you’re serious about writing with sensitivity, avoid loaded words such as mankind, postman, and fireman, and watch out for occupational stereotypes, such as assuming that all kindergarten teachers are women or all police officers are men.

For specific examples of how to fix gender-biased sentences, see The Use of Gender-Neutral Language in Your Writing from our previous blog post.

Other Sensitive Areas:

Country of Origin and/or Race

It is extremely offensive to make sweeping generalities about an entire race or nationality, so be careful how you describe your characters, and avoid stereotypes of any kind.

Sexual Orientation

A person’s sexual orientation should be brought to attention only if it is a relevant part of your story. If your poem is about the prejudice faced by a gay couple, then certainly their sexual orientation is relevant. Saying “The man who took our order was obviously a homosexual” could be construed as offensive if the man’s sexuality has nothing at all to do with the story.

Religion

This can be a very sensitive area. If you view a particular religion as fanatical or cultlike, refrain from describing it as such. Your readers could be mightily offended—and rightly so.

Knock It Off with the Fat Jokes

Not much else to say. Just don’t participate.

There is an exception to all of this. If you are trying to show what a donkey’s behind your character is, feel free to employ all these methods and offend away—as long as it’s clear your character is the insensitive lunkhead, not you.

A collective noun refers to a group of people or things, such as “family” or “flock.” It can be confusing to determine if the noun should function as singular or plural when trying to match a verb with it, so let’s break it down.

SINGULAR COLLECTIVE NOUNS:
 
Mathematics is my favorite subject.
The mob was rounding the corner.
A pair of scissors is on the kitchen counter.         

PLURAL COLLECTIVE NOUNS:
         
Where are my scissors?
The headquarters are located in Boise, Idaho.
         
EITHER WAY:

Many collective nouns can either be singular or plural, depending on their context, and here is where the confusion often lies. For example:

The jury have mixed feelings about the prosecutor’s cross-examination. (Where the individual members have differing emotions.)

The jury is sequestered. (Where the jury is a single entity.)

The staff is waiting in the conference room. (Single entity.)

The staff have special qualifications for this project. (Referring to individual members of the staff.)

My family is very dysfunctional. (Referring to the family as a unit.)

My family have always been proud of me. (Referring to the family members individually.)

Reverend Smith’s flock is very devout. (Single entity.)

Reverend Smith’s flock are always competing with each other. (Individual members are competing with each other.)

The distinctions between singular and plural usage can be pretty subtle. Your job is to decide if you want to focus on the individual or the whole, and match your verbs accordingly. As always, once you’ve made your decision, stay consistent.

When the protagonist of your story pauses to think something, you need to set it apart somehow from the regular text and dialogue. There are a few different ways of setting characters' thoughts.

The most straightforward way to do this is to paraphrase the characters' thoughts into the narrative. For example:

When the brothers climbed up the riverbank, their school clothes coated with mud and filth, it occurred to them for the first time that their mom would be furious. Why hadn't they gone home first to change into play clothes? Oh well, they were already in trouble for being late for dinner, and they might as well get it over with. The trio trudged home reluctantly.

Another useful technique is to use italics, which is an effective tool when both thoughts and spoken dialogue are interspersed. This technique is becoming standard practice among publishers—and for good reason. The different type style makes it quite clear when a person is thinking versus speaking aloud:                                   

When the brothers climbed up the riverbank, their school clothes coated with mud and filth, it occurred to them for the first time that their mom would be furious. Why didn't we go home first to change into play clothes? Roger thought. "We're already in trouble for being late for dinner, so we might as well get it over with," he told his brothers, and the trio trudged home reluctantly.

This style is also popular with science fiction and horror writers, who use italics to show telepathic communication between characters. Some writers use quotation marks to set off thoughts, but this can get complicated, especially when thoughts and spoken dialogue are mixed. 

When the brothers climbed up the riverbank, their school clothes coated with mud and filth, it occurred to them for the first time that their mom would be furious. "Why didn't we go home first to change into play clothes?" Roger thought. "We're already in trouble for being late for dinner, so we might as well get it over with," he told his brothers, and the trio trudged home reluctantly.

There is nothing to differentiate between the spoken sentence and the thought. This can be avoided by using single quotation marks around the thought, but this is an awkward fix, and we don't recommend it.

When the brothers climbed up the riverbank, their school clothes coated with mud and filth, it occurred to them for the first time that their mom would be furious. 'Why didn't we go home first to change into play clothes?' Roger thought. "We're already in trouble for being late for dinner, so we might as well get it over with," he told his brothers, and the trio trudged home reluctantly.

If your character is thinking something to himself, it is redundant to say so.
 
Wow, that sure is a small car, the large man thought to himself.

But if he is thinking out loud, tell this to your reader. 

"Wow, that sure is a small car," the large man thought aloud. 

Finally, whichever style you choose to follow, make sure it stays consistent throughout your work, and make it easy for your reader to follow what your characters are thinking, as well as saying.

In this article we'll focus on the use of commas after introductory words or phrases. There are a few rules, mostly to indicate a natural pause in the sentence and to avoid sentence confusion. In many cases it is the writer's choice. Here are a few guidelines to follow.

DO use a comma:

--After introductory exclamatories and after expressions of affirmation or negation.

Well, it's about time. Oh, you shouldn't have! Yes, I'd love to.

--After an introductory clause.

As I told you, the principal won't be back until Monday.

--After an introductory prepositional phrase of more than four words.

After driving for more than eight fun-filled hours, we finally arrived at the motel.

--After an introductory verbal phrase, appositive phrase, or absolute phrase.

Having formed an instant bond, the boy and the puppy quickly became inseparable.

In order to give a good estimate, the plumber spent over an hour investigating the leaky pipes.

A lawyer from Texas, John Stetson is an expert in copyright law.

--After introductory transitional words.

However, I never said I would actually attend the party.

Of course, I wasn't actually invited...

Do not use a comma when a gerund or an infinitive is used as a subject.

Watering the lawn is a good way to attract birds.

To tackle the subject without any research would be foolish.

NOTE: As with many elements of creative writing, comma usage generates much debate. Many experts recommend separating all introductory elements with a comma. It makes for a natural break or pause, and it contributes to better comprehension. Others argue that if the sentence is clear without the comma, and the introductory element is short, the comma is unnecessary; ultimately, it comes down to personal preference and what works best for the reader.

Than versus Then

"Than" is a conjunction and is used in making comparisons:

I would rather eat a banana than a kiwi.

"Then" is an adverb relating to time:

We'll catch the train, then meet at the library downtown.

Let's versus Lets

"Let's" is a contraction for "let us," and "lets" is a verb, meaning to allow or permit:

Let's hope he lets us bring our notes.

If versus Whether

"If" refers to one possibility; "whether" refers to more than one possibility.

I don't know if he wants to go with us. He'll have to decide whether he wants to get a ride or meet there later.

Infer versus Imply

"Infer" means to draw a conclusion.

The readers inferred that the article was meant to draw attention to the refugees' plight.

"Imply" means to suggest or hint.

The article implied that aloe vera can decrease scarring due to burns.

Compared To versus Compared With

"Compared to" is used when pointing out similarities:

My tuna casserole was compared to a science fair experiment gone bad.

"Compared with" is used to point out differences:

My casserole was delicious compared with the slop the others brought.

Here is yet another example of the subjectivity of language. Standard American English is an ever-evolving entity, and experts disagree on many aspects of what is "correct." Dictionaries and textbooks vary slightly when it comes to standards of usage, and it is often up to the writer to determine which rules to follow. When it comes to word choice, should you use toward or towards? Cannot or can not? If you're like most writers, you turn to the dictionary and discover that towards is listed as a "variant," which leads you to believe it is "nonstandard." What does that mean? Is it correct or not? Dictionaries list nonstandard words to indicate that they are commonly used but are not necessarily correct. You'll also find jargon and colloquialisms in the dictionary, but you wouldn't use the word "ain't" in your essay just because it's in the dictionary. (Naturally, you could use it in dialogue.) In other words, err on the side of standard usage.

Standard American English is "substantially uniform and well-established by usage in the speech and writing of the educated and widely recognized as acceptable" according to Merriam-Webster. Based on that definition, we have put together the following list of standard and nonstandard words and phrases.

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Stymied by pesky punctuation marks and their position in quoted speech or phrases? The rules differ depending on what part of the world you hail from, but if you're writing for an American audience, here's the skinny.

Commas and periods go inside quotation marks:

She said, "Put the groceries over there."

It's no wonder that we still rely on romantic "instinct."

Except when a parenthetical reference follows the quotation:

Fritzheimer refers to this option as "a quick fix with little regard for the individual's needs" (321).

Colons and semicolons go outside quotation marks:

The first group's questionnaires came back with a majority of "not sure" or "not at this time"; however, the second group responded more in the affirmative.

Be sure to pack enough road trip "survival gear": magazines, munchies, and gum.

Question marks and exclamation points go outside the quotation if they apply to the whole sentence, inside if they apply to the quotation itself:

George asked, "Why is he yelling at the coach?"

Why do they insist on saying, "All's well that ends well"?

Susan yelled, "She's driving on the wrong side of the road!"

I cannot believe she is singing "The Star-Spangled Banner"!

A comma is not needed if the quoted material flows smoothly within the sentence, without break or pause:

The phrase "live and let live" always comes to mind when the neighbors pay a visit.

British Versus American Style

In the UK and British-influenced countries, commas and periods are placed either inside or outside the closing quotation marks based on whether or not they belong to the quoted material (much the same way as American placement of question marks and exclamation points is determined). So why did we change styles in the United States? Surprisingly, it was more a matter of typography than grammar or style. According to alt.english.usage, back in the 1700s American printers, when setting type by hand, found that periods or commas outside of quotation marks were prone to get knocked out of position or were damaged because they were smaller and more delicate. If they were inside the quotation mark, they were better protected, and thus we began to move away from British convention.

Some American language experts are outspoken advocates of returning to the British style, citing the confusion that can result from our system. But The Chicago Manual of Style says, "In defense of nearly a century and a half of the American style, it may be said that it seems to have been working fairly well and has not resulted in serious miscommunication."

Read this article by Sam Roberts.

Semicolon sightings in the city are unusual, but Neil Neches, a writer in the transit agency's marketing and service information department, inserted one on a placard anyway.

This article articulates the wonder in seeing a semicolon in such an odd place, but other grammarians, professors, and teachers are delighted to see it used properly.

The reason the semicolon is so rarely seen and used is simply because not many know how to use it properly. In the wave of technology and IM/text speak, a semicolon is used to wink at someone.

Check out the article for more information. ;)

http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/18/nyregion/18semicolon.html?ex=1361163600&en=1f4b96ff6a13e0b6&ei=5124&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink

What the heck is a sniglet? According to comedian Rich Hall, who coined the phrase in the 1980s HBO series, Not Necessarily the News, a sniglet is "any word that doesn't appear in the dictionary, but should." Obviously, this is not a new concept. People have been making up their own words since the days of woolly mammoths. But Mr. Hall is the man who came up with a name for these neologisms, and that seems to be a specialty of his. His keen insight into American culture, a fascination with the English language, and a dry wit led him to publish five collections of sniglets—his own, as well as submissions from his fans.

So, for instance, if you're looking for a term to describe the affliction of dialing a phone number and forgetting who you were calling just as they answer, Hall has created a word especially for you: phonesia. He also came up with the very useful "carperpetuation," which finally gives us a way to describe the act of running the vacuum over a string or piece of lint dozens of times, reaching over to pick it up, examining it, and then putting it back down to give the vacuum one last chance. It's about time someone came up with a term for that scenario.

Even Oprah Winfrey's gotten into the act with slumpadinka (a woman who dresses like she's given up on herself, and it shows). So it's only logical that, as writers, we should have our own set of sniglets. For example:                                                           

Barfiage—the act of effortlessly "spewing" the perfect poem, short story, or chapter in one writing session. (The act of effortlessly spewing a fabulous poem, short story, or chapter that needs absolutely no revision is called a "miracle.")

Blockberry—the slightly scary assistant who stands between you and your editor/agent every time you call

Criticut—a member of a writers' group who scribbles a single derogatory word across the front page of your work (DRIVEL!) but offers no other comment whatsoever

Chickencrit—a member of a writers' group who offers plenty of criticism and advice, yet never, ever offers up their own work for scrutiny

Embarrasqueak—the excited noise one makes when the answer to a perplexing plot question (for example) strikes at an inappropriate time, such as in the middle of a staff meeting or at a funeral for the kids' hamster

Embarrastare—the blank stare on a writer's face when lost in thought, again at inopportune and embarrassing moments

Frusta-freeze—an inexplicably frozen computer screen (and the inexplicable error message that follows)

Keybored—the act of aimlessly surfing the Web when you should be working

Queternity—the amount of time that elapses between sending out a query and hearing something back

Repeat-a-cut—a paper cut that keeps getting reopened

Wikiholica—person with a tragic addiction to Wikipedia

Zoomilocation—A future Olympic event, zoomilocation describes the act of zipping around your office on a chair with wheels

And there's an actual term that describes that elusive word just on the tip of your tongue—you know, the word so elusive that nothing remotely similar comes to mind, so even your thesaurus can't help you?

And, finally, one more. Rich Hall is to thank for this one: Sarchasm—the gulf between the author of sarcastic wit and the person who doesn't get it. (May we suggest sarcastrophe, as in "The humor of this piece fell flat, which was an unfortunate sarcastrophe"?)

Writers worldwide should be quite happy with this treasure trove of new material. No longer will we have to rack our brains for just the right phrase to describe two people wrestling for the same armrest at the movie theater (elbonics), or that smudgy, slimy nose print dogs leave on the windows (pupkus). Thank you, Rich Hall. Thank you for enriching our vocabulary and expanding our repertoire of yet more words to learn how to spell.

REMEMBER TO CHECK OUT OUR LIST OF WRITING CONTESTS and ANTHOLOGIES! You won’t find a better list anywhere (AND IT’S FREE!) of upcoming anthologies, special-themed journals, and contests. Find it by visiting:
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